How did my name become Marcum when my dad was a Markham? My dad was born Theodore Edward Markham. He was known as Ed. His parents were Edward Markham and Etta Marcum. Yes, a Markham married a Marcum. After separating from his first wife, my dad changed the spelling of his surname to Marcum. He did this as his mother’s maiden name was Marcum. He was a Marcum when he married his second wife, who would become my mom. Thus, I’m a Marcum by birth, and a Markham by lineage.
My paternal Markham line goes from my dad back to Deacon Daniel Markham. Deacon Dan is my 7th Great Grandfather. He is the first Markham in this line that came to the colonies. He lived in Earls Colne, Essex County, England and in 1655 he came to Cambridge, Massachusetts Colony. He was 14 years old. The ship he came on is not known, but he very likely came on a merchant ship that was arranged by his wealthy uncle Edward Collins. Edward was the brother of Martha, who was Deacon Dan’s mother. Deacon Dan’s father was James Markham. The father of James is not known, nor is the ancestral line further back in time.
I have written biographies for all my Markham grandparents back to Deacon Dan and his wife Elizabeth Whitmore. These can be found on our website https://markham-and-marcum-genealogy.com/ under Bios & Stories.
My Marcum line starts with my dad’s mother, Etta. Etta’s father was James Marcum. The line from James goes back to Thomas Markham who arrived in Henrico County, Virginia by 1635. The spelling changed from Markham to Marcum in this line as they moved from Virginia to Tennessee to Kentucky to Missouri. Our website has a bio for Etta and a more comprehensive bio for the Marcum line beginning with James and going back to Thomas. There are some challenges with this line, and I explain in the bio how DNA helped me to determine several relationships.
I recently discovered a new challenge in my Marcum line, which was brought to light by Y DNA. A Marcum was fathered by a Phelan man. It was a Non-Parental Event. This would have happened in the 1400s or 1500s AD, and might have been in Kilkenny County, Ireland. I’ll discuss this in the Marcum section later on. But the point is that the Marcum line is descended from the Phelan line in Ireland.
I’ll cover this more in the following, but I do want to point out that my Markham line and my Marcum line are not closely related at all. The Y DNA of the Markham line is haplogroup “I.” A haplogroup is a grouping of people with similar DNA, kind of like a clan. Deacon Dan was an “I.” The Marcum line is haplogroup “R.” Thomas Markham was an “R.” Having different haplogroups, which is just a way the various branches of DNA are grouped, means these two paternal lines are quite different. A common ancestor (distant grandparent) for “I” and “R” would have lived tens of thousands of years ago. Thus, these two lines are not closely related.
In this paper I will attempt to answer the following questions:
- What is the origin of the Markham and Marcum name?
- Do all Markhams/Marcums come from Markham, England?
- What is the origin of the Markham paternal line and what is the Grandfather’s Path?
- What is the origin of the Marcum paternal line and what is the Grandfather’s Path?
I am not an expert in genetics, archaeology, anthropology, or history. I do have a great interest in genealogy and in using DNA to assist in understanding genealogy. This paper is my attempt to understand my ancestry going way back in time for my Markham and Marcum lines. I make a point to reference the sources that I have used in doing this.
As a note, in this paper when I’m referencing one of my ancestral lines, I use the terms Markham line or Marcum line. Of course, surnames weren’t used until around 1200 AD. And there were many other family lines that descended from our much earlier, ancient ancestors. But I use these terms as my way of identifying these lines in looking back into time. An ancient grandfather isn’t really a Markham, but he is my ancestor.
Origin of the Markham Name
The Marcum name comes as a variation of the spelling of Markham. The name began in England, in Nottinghamshire, in a village called Markham. There are actually two villages, East Markham (also historically known as Great Markham) and West Markham (Note: I’ll often just refer to the two villages together as being Markham). The population of the combined villages is about 1400 people today. East Markham is home to St. John the Baptist church. This church, which we visited in 2011, was built in the 1300’s. Inside is the tomb of Judge John Markham who died in 1409. It was interesting to see in the guest book that many Markhams had visited the church.
The early spelling was Marcham. It is a surname of origin, the first people to use “de Marcham” and then later “Markham” were those who lived there. The name Markham comes from two words: “mark,” which is cultivated township land, and “ham,” which means village.[1] Before the use of surnames became commonplace a person named John for example would have been referred to as John of Markham.
There are many variations of the spelling of Markham. Marcum is one of those, others include Markam, Marcam, Markem, Markum, Marcham and Marcom. I think that as the early Markhams in Virginia migrated to Tennessee and Kentucky, one or more of the family lines started using the spelling of Marcum.
In 1840 there were 92 Marcum families identified in the U.S. Federal Census. Half of these lived in Tennessee and Kentucky. On the same census for the Markham surname, there were 187 families in the U.S. The most Markhams were in New York, about 34% of them. The total U.S. population on the 1840 census was a little over 17 million. Based on an average family size of about 5, there were around 1500 Markhams/Marcums. Our family was pretty small.
Before about ten years ago (before the advent of affordable Y DNA testing) Markham genealogists thought that all Markhams/Marcums originated from one man named Claron living in Markham, England in the 1066 AD era. Then in the early stages of publicly available Y DNA testing it was learned that there were Markham men with haplogroup “R” and also men with haplogroup “I.” This changed the single originator theory. But in the early years of DNA testing the tests weren’t specific enough to see that the “R” group would actually turn into multiple lines. Eventually a more robust test became available to provide more details, giving the ability to map out more specific DNA changes (called SNPs, which I’ll define later). Now we can see how “R” spread out into multiple ancestral lines, and how I was able to find several “R” lines tied to Markham/Marcum men.
Before doing the research for this paper, I thought that the Y-DNA of all male Markhams/Marcums would trace back to Markham, England. But it is not obvious that this is the case. There is a Y DNA project at Family Tree DNA for Markham/Marcum. There are many current members of this project whose Y-DNA is the group R-M269. Some members have traced their ancestry back to known descendants of Markham, England. But quite a few lines have not been able to be traced back that far.
The first generally recognized Markham is Sir Alexander Markham (referred to as Alexander de Marcham) who was born around the year 1130 and was Lord of East Markham.[2] While it is not conclusive, I believe the ancestor of Alexander to be a man named Claron. Claron was Lord of West Markham according to the Doomsday book of 1086. [3]
The Doomsday book was commissioned by King William of England (known as William the Conqueror), who was king from the Norman Conquest in 1066 until his death in 1087. Officially called the Great Survey, the book is a census of all landholders in England along with land held and other assets. In addition to providing information about the people, it was used for taxation. It became called the Doomsday Book because it was the final and binding source of land information, with no further appeal possible. The book contains about 19,500 names, which are primarily landowners. The total population count of male heads of households is 268,984 (there are several cities not included, one of which is London). It also lists about 13,400 places or locations, many of which are villages.
In the Doomsday book East Markham has 62 households and West Markham has 20. Assuming that each household had a man who was counted in the census, there were at least 82 men living in the Markham villages in 1086. It certainly seems reasonable that a number of these men would have descendants who would take the surname Markham at some point in time, when it became necessary for identification. This is called a toponymic surname, taking the name of where you live. Surnames would have become common in the timeframe of the 1100’s and 1200’s. Some men would have taken a surname of occupation such as Smith (blacksmith) or Miller (owned or ran a grain or saw mill). Others would take a patronymic name. For example, a child of a man named John might take the surname Johnson. There are also descriptive surnames such as Armstrong, Long, or Brown. It has to be likely that at some point a portion of the 82 men became known as John of Markham (using the given name John as an example), which later became just John Markham.
Three historical books written by Markhams describe the early family genealogy. In ““A History of the Markham Family,” by Reverend David Frederick Markham,[4] published in 1854, Claron is stated as being “the first person who can be fixed upon as the origin of the Markham stock” (page 1).
According to “Markham: The Church and Parish,” by Clements Markham,[5] written in 1882, “Claron of West Markham was the forefather of Sir Alexander Markham (or De Marcham), who held the post of Constable of Nottingham Castle during the reign of Henry II” (page 8).
David Frederick Markham (1800-1853) is the father of Clements. Clements (1830-1916) was an English geographer, explorer, and writer. He was secretary and then president of the Royal Geographical Society.[6] In addition to the genealogy books mentioned here, he authored 28 published books and many other articles and writings.
In a bit of a different view, in “Markham Memorials,” by Clements Markham, written in 1913,[7] he states that “the successor to his estate, who assumed the name of de Marcham (or Markham), was presumably his son” (page 6). He is saying that the father of Alexander is Fulc de Lizours. Fulc’s father was Roger, who held a manor in East Markham that he received in marrying the heiress of an earlier manor holder (this is not Roger de Busli, who I will cover below). This gives us a different genealogical line and does not mention Claron. I do not know why Clements changed the story from his first book in 1882, and from his father’s book, to this version in 1913. I have not found anything else that collaborates this version of the story where Claron is not in the Markham line.
There are other sources that have Claron as the first known Markham. For example, there is an article written in 1907 by the pastor of the East Markham church that has Claron being the forefather of Alexander.[8]
The 1854 David Markham book has the ancestry line being Claron > Roger > Fulc > Alexander. This line has been copied into many places. The 1882 Clements Markham book has Claron > unknown > Alexander (Claron being stated as the forefather, and the timeframe indicates one or two generations in between them). The 1913 Clements Markham book has Roger > Fulc > Alexander. It does not have Claron being the father of Roger. So, we have three different versions of the Markham line.
There is another piece of information in a transcription of the Doomsday Book concerning Claron. He is listed as being “Father of Arnold.”[9] I had not seen Arnold as the son of Claron anywhere else. But after looking into this more, I did find something. It is in a book titled “The Cartulary of Blyth Priory.”[10] A cartulary is a collection of historical documents, such as charters and deeds, often compiled into a single manuscript for a monastery or church. A Priory is a type of monastery where monks live. The priory named Blyth was built by Roger de Busli in 1088 in Nottinghamshire, England. Roger de Busli became one of the largest landholders in England after William became King in 1066. Roger was a Norman and was highly favored by King William. He was a Baron and he held about 174 manors, including East and West Markham.
In this book it mentions Claron as being a tenant of Roger’s, and that he held land in West Markham and Elkesley (both in Nottinghamshire County). And it says that Claron’s son Ernald witnessed a gift of land to another priory. This does mean that Claron had a son named Ernald, which could have been interpreted as Arnold in the transcription of the Doomsday book.
Another observation about Claron is that his father could be a man named Godric. Claron was Lord of West Markham in 1086. The Doomsday book also lists the Lords from the time of the Conquest in 1066, and for the same West Markham entry this is a man named Godric. It is possible that Claron inherited the land and title from his father. Godric could be the father of Claron. There is no proof of this, it is just speculation.
Given the number of sources stating that Claron was the forefather of Alexander and therefore would be an original Markham, I tend to believe this. Alexander and Claron would be the progenitors of Markhams and/or Marcums from a haplogroup “R” ancestral line. All male descendants of Alexander are haplogroup “R.” Therefore, the progenitor of my haplogroup “I” line is not Claron or Alexander. My paternal line ancestor must be another man who lived in Markham, England back then.
There is another important piece of information, and one that I find quite interesting. In my Y DNA there is a mutation (an SNP named I-A17998) that occurred in about 600 AD. In looking at the map where this mutation occurred, it is in Nottinghamshire County, England.[11] This is where the villages of East Markham and West Markham are. So, my “I” line, the Markham ancestral line, was in this area in advance of the Norman Conquest. It shows that the Markham line was already established in Nottinghamshire and were quite possibly early inhabitants of Markham, England. All male descendants of Deacon Daniel Markham are haplogroup “I,” and connect back to Markham, England.
Mercia
The Markham ancestral line was in the western Netherlands, possibly on the Frisian islands, in about 1100 BC. Then by about 100 BC they had moved to the middle northern part of England. This area would later become Mercia. This was in advance of the Roman invasion and occupation of England which began in 43 AD.
In Nottinghamshire there are roads that were first build by the Romans. This includes a main north – south road through the country. The Romans build forts, villages, and camps in what would become Nottinghamshire. The Markham line was there and would have had to cope with this occupation of the area. There were not any major Roman battles there.
After the Roman era in England ended in 410 AD, today’s England began being divided into seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. This was called the Heptarchy. The kingdom of Mercia was the middle portion of today’s England and is where Nottinghamshire was. This area where Nottinghamshire is located began being settled by Anglo-Saxon tribes in the 400’s AD. Mercia was a kingdom from 527 AD until 918 AD.[12] The Markham line lived in Mercia. They were likely some of the earliest inhabitants of the villages of Markham.
The villages of Markham were originally a settlement in the country of a tribe of the Angles called Gainas, from whom the town of Gainsborough on the Trent river is named. Gainsborough is about 15 miles northeast from East Markham. The Gaini were an Anglo tribe that occupied part of Mercia. They are mentioned in a book named “Life of King Alfred,” written by a Welsh monk named Asser in 893 AD.[13] King Alfred, referred to as Alfred the Great, lived from 849 to 899 AD.[14] He was King of the West Saxons from 871 to 886 and King of the Anglo-Saxons from 866 to 899. Alfred married Eahlswith in 868 AD. She was the daughter of Aethelred, who was also known as Mucel, the Chief of the Gainas. This means the children of Alfred were Gainas from their mother’s side.
Clements Markham wrote this: [15]
A memorable event occurred near the Markham villages, on the right bank of the River Idle, in the year 617 A.D. The King of Bernicia (from Tees to Forth) had usurped the kingdom of Deira and made himself ruler of all Northumbria. He was a violent, headstrong king named Ethelfrith. The rightful heir of Deira, named Edwin, had taken refuge with Redwald the King of the East Angles. Ethelfrith demanded that Edwin should be given up to him, which Redwald refused. The Northumbrian king then marched against the King of the East Angles, and Redwald and Edwin advanced to meet him. All the Gainas rallied to the standard of Redwald, and he gained a complete victory near Markham, on the east side of the Idle. Ethelfrith was killed, and Edwin became King of Northumbria, Bretwalda, introducer of Christianity, and the greatest and best of all the kings of the Heptarchy.
For more than five centuries the Gainas had inhabited the country watered by the Trent and the Idle, when, in 1013, King Swegen of Denmark sailed up the Trent to Gainsborough. He died there in the following year, and the Danish fleet elected Knut to succeed him. But no change of ownership of land is recorded, and in the days of Edward the Confessor (1004 – 1066), the Gainas who owned East and West Markham were Godric and Edwin in the western, Ulchel and Godwin in the eastern village.
There is no other mention of the Gainas, they are an obscure group. The Markham line would have been living in this area at this time, but they were in today’s England before the Anglo-Saxon invasion by several hundred years. I do not think the Markhams were Gainas (they were Frisii’s, which I’ll cover later), but they would have lived among them in the Kingdom of Mercia. The event described by Clements does mean that the Markham villages were in place by 617 AD.
Another change happened in the 870’s AD. The Danish Vikings had been attacking England since the late 700’s. But then they started to try to conquer the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. They were successful and the eastern part of Mercia became the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw.[16] Nottingham was one of the boroughs and would have been ruled under Danish law and customs.
This raises a question about the landholders of East and West Markham at the time of the Norman Conquest. Were they Anglo-Saxons or Danish? In looking at the eight names in the Doomsday book for 1066, it appears that only one is Scandinavian. This is Ulchel (Ulfkil). The others – Edwy (Edwin), Frani, Godwin, Godric, Alwy, Wulfmer, and Claron, appear to be “native” Anglo-Saxons. This means the Markham villages were not taken over by the Danish Vikings.
The Story of Y DNA
Y DNA goes on to tell a more complicated story. In genetic analysis, an SNP is what makes differences in our DNA. SNP stands for Single Nucleotide Polymorphism and means that there was a change, referred to as a mutation, at a particular location in the DNA. Geneticists use SNPs as the way to distinguish population groups, down to individuals. The major groups of those with common SNPs are called haplogroups. Y DNA is contained only in the paternal line. It is passed from father to son, continuing from generation to generation. It is on chromosome 23, where there is also X DNA. Men have a Y from their father and an X from their mother. Women have two X chromosomes, one from each parent.
There are other Markham/Marcum lines. What I will call the Marcum line is identified as haplogroup R-M269. We know this as there are men who tested as R-M269, and some of them have traced their ancestral line back to Alexander. This means that Alexander, and Claron assuming he is the ancestor of Alexander, are haplogroup R-M269. This information can be found in the Markham/Marcum project at Family Tree DNA, which is the preeminent company that does Y DNA testing.[17] They also host many different projects, which are for groups of men that have something in common. This could be their surname, where they are from, etc.
The Markham/Marcum project has 159 members as of this writing. Men are grouped according to the commonality of their Y DNA. There are several levels of Y DNA testing available. The most comprehensive is the Big Y. This test provides the most detail. The smaller, less expensive tests provide more of an overview. As the smaller tests have been around longer the early customers took what was available. Some have upgraded since then, but not that many. In my case I took a small test early on then upgraded to the Big Y when it became available several years later.
In reviewing the project participants, I found 5 examples of R-M269 Markham/Marcum lines that are each different. These lines have at least one man who took the Big Y test. R-M269 is a DNA mutation (change in a particular location) that occurred about 15,000 years ago. There have been a number of other Y DNA mutations that have occurred since then. If we look at the 5 lines I identified, between R-M269 and today they each have a different set of mutations. The men in these lines are related, but they are not close relatives such as brothers or first cousins. The 5 lines do not lead back to the same man in Markham, England in 1086 AD. In other words, these 5 lines represent 5 different men living in that era. One of these lines does go back to Claron and Alexander. But the other 4 have to go back to 4 other men.
These 5 “R” haplogroup lines were part of a single “R” line much earlier. Haplogroup “R” was formed about 32,000 years ago. By about 2,200 years ago the single “R” line had become these 5 lines. With the timing of the Doomsday book being in 1088 AD, this means that the 5 “R” lines had become separate lines over a thousand years before that. Which in turn means that at the time of Doomsday the men from these lines were not closely related at all. There was not a single first Markham man. There were several, each of which was first in his family line. And each of these descendant lines would choose the surname Markham.
The 5 “R” haplogroup lines are in addition to my “I” haplogroup Y DNA line, which means there are 6 lines. And there are likely more as this is only based on the Y DNA tests at Family Tree DNA that have been done as of now. As more men take the Big Y test it is possible more Markham lines can be identified. About 700,000 men have taken a DNA test at FTDNA, as I already stated 159 of those have joined the Markham/Marcum project.
In the United States it is estimated that about 13% of men are haplogroup “I”. Haplogroup “R” is a much larger group at about 56%.[18] In England “I” is 21% of men and “R” is 72%.[19]
My Y DNA is haplogroup “I” and the terminal SNP (which means the last mutation, the most recent one) is called FT3817, this would be written as I-FT3817. Another way of indicating my Y DNA is I2a1a2a1a1a4a. This type of coding defined by the International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG)[20] is how Y DNA was originally indicated, but it became too cumbersome as it was changed a lot as new SNPs were discovered. Today the normal method of indicating someone’s Y DNA is the method of showing the overall haplogroup (in my case it’s “I”) followed by the terminal SNP. I refer to this ancestral line as my Markham line.
Haplogroup “I” was formed about 42,000 years ago when it branched off from the Y DNA tree. The Y DNA tree was started by Y-Adam, who lived about 230,000 years ago in Cameroon, Africa.
The path from Y-Adam to the man who was the first to be a haplogroup “I” went through these countries (using today’s country names):
| Today’s Country | Timeframe |
| Cameroon | 232,000 BC |
| Nigeria | 152,000 BC |
| Sudan | 126,000 BC |
| Ethiopia | 86,000 BC |
| Oman | 63,000 BC |
| Iran | 47,000 BC |
| Iraq | 45,000 BC |
| Austria | 40,000 BC |
The first haplogroup “I” man occurred in Austria about 40,000 BC. Then to follow this on to today looks like this:
| Today’s Country | Timeframe |
| Austria | 40,000 BC |
| Germany | 23,000 BC |
| Italy | 21,000 BC |
| France | 18,000 BC |
| Spain | 10,000 BC |
| France (Doggerland) | 8650 BC |
| Netherlands | 5350 BC |
| England (Doggerland) | 5100 BC |
| Germany | 5050 BC |
| Denmark | 4600 BC |
| Netherlands | 4100 BC |
| Germany | 1850 BC |
| Netherlands | 1100 BC |
| England | 100 BC |
| United States | 1655 AD |
This Y DNA information comes from reports at Family Tree DNA, specifically the Discover Haplogroup Report and Discover Globetrekker.
Markhams in Europe
With Haplogroup “I” being formed probably in the area of present-day Austria about 40,000 BC, this is when the Markham line was first in Europe. They migrated to Europe from the area of Iraq. They were in the Middle East for about 23,000 years, beginning around 63,000 BC. The migration from Iraq to Europe took them through Syria, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Poland and the Czech Republic over the course of 7000 years. This was after leaving Africa where they had lived since Y-Adam was identified to have been in today’s Cameroon around 232,000 BC.
The early humans in Europe were called Cro-Magnons or European Early Modern Humans (EEMH). These people were hunter-gatherers, using spears and harpoons as well as fishing lines and hooks. Tools were made from stone, with some use of bone and antler. This was the Stone Age. They created art such as figurines and cave paintings. Decorative beads have been found along with clothes that were dyed. They played music as flutes and whistles have been found. They did bury their dead, but this may have been more for those of a higher or special status.
Archaeology uses cultures as a way to define and study groups of people with similar artifacts and practices in a specific region and time. Pottery styles or burial methods are examples of ways a culture might be defined. The first European culture of humans is called the Aurignacian. This culture existed from about 41,000 BC until about 24,000 BC. The early Cro-Magnons were the Aurignacian culture.[21] This is what the Markham line was, and they were in the area of today’s Austria.
I thought it would be interesting to follow the Markham line through the various archaeological cultures over time. A summary of this follows.[22]
The next culture the Markham line would have been part of is the Gravettian. The Gravettian culture is distinguished by advanced hunting tools, elaborate art, burial technique and innovations such as bone needles and rope making tools. They were tall and thin, with the men averaging 6 foot in height and weighing about 155 pounds. This is the tallest cultural group ever identified. This culture began about 31,000 BC and lasted until about 20,000 BC. This was during the Last Glacial Maximum, which was from 24,000 BC to 16,000 BC. The Markham line and Gravettians went south when this ice age hit Europe, to the north coast of the Mediterranean in northwest Italy.
The Solutrean culture was from about 20,000 BC to 15,000 BC. This culture is distinguished by more sophisticated stone tools, especially blades for knives and scrapers. They used materials that were aesthetically pleasing in making some tools. They were an offshoot from the Gravettians and they stayed in southern France during the latter part of the ice age. After the ice age the Markham line started moving north into the middle of France.
Next was the Magdalenian culture from about 15,000 BC to 10,000 BC. They had more sophisticated art in the form of cave paintings, carved items such as bone, antler and ivory, and they made figurines and decorative beads. They began to use the bow and arrow and were quite good at hunting reindeer. They were still in the area of today’s France.
The Azilian culture was from 10,500 BC to 8000 BC, located in the southern France and northern Spain areas. This was a refugia area during the ice age and this is where the Markham line went. Humans and animals migrated south to avoid the cold weather in northern Europe. This group had more simplified technology in the form of tools and weapons. They painted pebbles and created geometric patterns. This timeframe was the end of the last ice age and marked the transition from the Paleolithic era to the Mesolithic era.
There was a smaller ice age from about 10,800 BC to 9600 BC. This was called the Younger Dryas. The end of this period marked the transition of the Paleolithic era to the beginning of the Mesolithic era. During this cold time the Markham line moved south into today’s northwest Spain. When temperatures warmed up, they moved back north again. They stayed on the western edge of Europe. By around 8650 BC they were in the area of Doggerland. The majority of the men in central and western Europe after the last ice age were haplogroup “I.” They were Mesolithic Hunter Gatherers.
Markhams in Doggerland
The English Channel waterway between Great Britain and mainland Europe was dry land before about 8000 years ago.[23] Called Doggerland, it was an area of rich resources for hunter-gatherers during the Mesolithic era (after the last ice age, the Younger Dryas). But as the climate was warming up, the 8.2 kiloyear disastrous event happened (so called as it occurred about 8200 years ago, about 6200 BC).[24] The post ice age warming caused a lot of ice to melt. Lake Agassiz in today’s southern Canada and northern United States drained almost completely as melting glacial ice changed the dynamics of the geological landscape. This caused a several hundred-year period of global cooling as cold water ran into the Atlantic Ocean and lowered the water temperature. There were tsunamis off the western coast of Norway that caused flooding in Doggerland. There was also a major volcano eruption, Mt. Vesuvius in Italy. These multiple factors resulted in lowering the climate temperature. Over about the next few thousand years or so Doggerland gradually sank under water until the English Channel was formed and the people were forced out. This would have been around 5000 BC. Some went west to today’s Great Britain while others went east to today’s mainland Europe. The Markham line went east.
Before the 8.2 year ago event the hunter-gatherer population of Doggerland is estimated to have been about 10,000.[25] The Markham ancestral line would have been there, living in Doggerland. The overall population of Great Britain and Northwest Europe declined as a result this event.[26] Based on the timing of SNP’s occurring during this timeframe, it appears that the Markham line had a population bottleneck. This means their population decreased due to the 8.2 kiloyear events and Doggerland flooding. For Haplogroup “I,” it has been estimated that there were only 9 men were alive after the Younger Dryas that have living male descendants today.[27] This means that haplogroup “I” almost went extinct.
The people living in Doggerland were part of the Maglemosian culture, which was from about 9000 BC to 6000 BC and existed in Denmark, Netherlands, northern Germany, Doggerland and eastern Britain. This culture was distinguished by their adaptation to wetlands. Many artifacts from this era have been found in bogs, where organic items were well preserved. They had advanced flint tools, bone and antler points, fishing gear (including fishing nets with weights) and canoes. Artistic expressions have been found on tools and ornaments. They had domesticated dogs.
I included a section on Ancient DNA towards the end of this paper. But I want to point out one item in particular. Eight ancient human DNA samples have been found in the English Channel.[28] These were people living in Doggerland. Six of the eight are men that are haplogroup “I.” This would be a distant cousin. One of these is more closely related. The SNP found in testing is I-M423. This is still a distant cousin, but less distant than the others. The discovery was made in 2011 by a fishing boat in an area called Brown Bank. Brown Bank is at the south end of the North Sea just outside of the northern end of the English Channel. It’s about half-way between the Netherlands and England, straight east of Norwich. A mandible (jaw bone) was found in a fishing net. DNA analysis was successfully performed. It was dated to around 8300 BC. This is when the Markham line was in Doggerland. As more research is done and more discoveries are made in the English Channel, I’m sure there will more haplogroup “I” findings. I find this quite fascinating.
The Maglemosian transitioned to the Kongemose culture which was from 6000 BC to 5200 BC. The Kongemose was a culture of sophisticated hunter-gathers that was well adapted to the changing landscape after the last ice age. They focused on marine resources and made finely crafted tools, many of which were made from bone and antler. Small microlithic arrowheads that were diamond shaped are a sign of this culture. They made canoes and paddles to get around in the submerged areas.
The Markham line was in the area of the Netherlands around 5300 BC. Then they went back to Doggerland by 5100 BC. The Family Tree DNA Globetrekker map shows this Y DNA change event (SNP mutation) as being on the east coast of England, in the very northeast corner of today’s Suffolk County. This meant crossing the flooding area of Doggerland. They only stayed on the England side about a hundred years before moving again.
At this point in history, around 5100 BC or 7100 years ago, the Markham line would have been Mesolithic hunter-gathers living in a small nomadic group. My ancestor at this time would be my 230th great grandfather. They used stone tools for hunting animals and to butcher the carcasses. They fished and gathered fruits, roots, and edible leaves. There is evidence for trade networks, especially for flint. Little is known about their religion. They likely practiced a form of polytheistic pagan religion, with multiple gods and goddesses associated with nature. A sacred tree may have served as a shrine. Some forms of symbolic or ritualistic practices have been found. They respected earth’s resources and might leave offerings.
After Doggerland
As Doggerland became flooded the Markham line went east to the north central Germany and southern Denmark area. This move was about 5000 BC.
I find it interesting that the Markham line made this northeast move from Doggerland. I don’t know what drove them to go that direction. Their tribe must have decided it was the way to go. It wouldn’t have been driven by a significant climate change event at that point. The weather would have been warmer allowing them to venture northward. They did this over the course of about 500 years, from 5000 BC to 4500 BC.
By around 4100 BC they were back in the area of the Netherlands. They were in the Swifterbant culture, which was in the Netherlands area from 5300 BC to 3400 BC. This culture was late to adopt farming and agriculture in comparison to the rest of Europe. They continued to hunt and fish as they gradually started farming. They had a distinctive type of ceramic pottery, which they used for cooking and keeping freshwater fish. Domesticated dogs were kept and they began to domesticate cattle, pigs, and goats. Farming and raising animals taken together was a big step forward for humans. Rather than having to continually move around to follow and track animals for food they could settle down and grow their own food. This also gave them more free time over the course of a year. The transition of the Mesolithic era to the Neolithic era was marked by farming and the domestication of animals.
The next cultural transition was to the Funnel Beaker culture, specifically the western version, from 4300 BC to 2800 BC. The Funnel Beakers were distinguished by their pottery, which were handle-less, funnel shaped beakers often decorated with patterns. Large stone tombs were begun in this era which shows community coordination and robust engineering. The plow is seen for farming and they started to make wool clothing. This was all part of a significant Neolithic shift in the Northwest Europe area.
The Funnel Beakers transitioned into the Vlaardingen culture, which existed from 3400 BC to 2500 BC. This culture was specifically and only in the southwest and south-central part of today’s Netherlands. This is the area called the Lower Rhine. Their type of pottery was unique in that was rather plain and had rim perforations. There is evidence that they recycled broken polished axes into remade types of smaller blades for knives, spears, arrowheads, scrapers, and awls. They appear to have been less warrior focused based upon fewer weapons being discovered and the items found in graves. The wheel was in use in this part of Europe by about 3400 BC. This was obviously a significant thing.
The Vlaardingens transitioned to the Single Grave culture, which was from 2800 BC to 2200 BC. This was still in the Northwest Europe area, in the south-central part of today’s Netherlands. The Single Grave culture moved from collective or communal graves to individual graves under barrows (small mounds). They put grave goods around the deceased. For men it would be stone battle axes. Women would receive decorated pottery beakers and amber discs. The deceased were placed on their right side and with the head facing west. Their pottery was thin walled and would be decorated with distinctive cord impressions, which was taken from the Corded Ware culture that extended across north central Europe.
The Bell Beaker culture was next, dated from 2700 BC to 2100 BC. There was overlap and transition from Single Grave. Bell Beakers are distinguished by bell shaped pottery with intricate geometric decoration and the adoption of metalworking with copper and bronze. The end of the Beaker era was the beginning of the Bronze Age. They continued the practice of individual graves with grave goods. It appears that they brewed beer, shown by barley cultivation. They also appear to have ridden horses. There seemed to be more recognition of elites in social status. They also established trade networks.
The Bell Beaker culture spread throughout central and western Europe, and to Britain and Ireland. This area is larger than any other culture in Europe’s history. The Bell Beakers were a big deal. While the earliest Bell Beaker pottery found was in Portugal, it is believed that the origin of the Bell Beaker Culture began in the Netherlands.[29] This cultural beginning was literally in the same geographic area as where the Markham line was at that time.
Around 2500 BC many Bell Beakers migrated to Britain. This involved crossing the English Channel. Within a few centuries of this migration 90% of the gene pool in Britain had been replaced.[30] The Bell Beaker’s Y DNA was primarily R1b-M269, which is the predominate haplogroup in England, and overall Europe, today. The Markham line was not part of this migration event. They remained in the Lower Rhine area of the Netherlands.
The next culture the Markham line experienced was the Barbed Wire Beaker culture, which was from 2100 BC to 1800 BC. This was a follow-on to the Bell Beakers and was marked by beakers that were decorated with impressions that resemble what looks like barbed wire (which obviously wasn’t around at that time).
At about 1800 BC the Markham line made a move. They left the Lower Rhine area of the Netherlands and went to Northwest Germany. This was a move of about 180 miles. There was a lot of cultural change happening. It was the end of the Bell Beaker and Barbed Wire Beaker era, and the beginning of the Bronze Age. The area of the Netherlands and Northwest Germany had two different cultures forming. In the south area of the Lower Rhine was the Hilversum culture. It appears that this group was more aggressive or warlike based on the weapons found and their burial goods.
In the north part of the Netherlands and Northwest Germany the Elp culture was forming. The Elps originated around 1800 BC and lasted until 800 BC. They were distinguished by their pottery, which was low quality and plain (especially compared to Bell Beaker pottery). They had cremation burials, with the ashes placed in urns and buried. They do not appear to have been as aggressive as the Hilversums. This may be why the Markham line moved to this area, to be part of the less aggressive Elps.
In about 1100 BC the Markham line moved again. This time they went straight west and ended up in the Frisian Islands on the west coast of the Netherlands. This is where the Frisii lived. They are known for building terpens, large man-made mounds for housing. This was done to create settlements in the swampy, waterlogged environment. They made a mound then built a small house (like a hut) on it. In the wet area prone to flooding this kept the house dry. The Frisii were a Germanic group and shared some culture with other Germanic groups in the North Sea coast area such as the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Franks, and Chauci. They were skilled seafarers. At this time the Markham line would have been Frisii’s.
By 100 BC the Markham line was back in England. As the English Channel was close to the level it is today, they would have sailed from Europe across the channel. Then they would have made their way to the central England area. This takes us full circle back to the earlier section on Mercia.
WHERE DOES MY MARCUM LINE COME FROM?
My Marcum line took a much different path than the Markham line. The Markham line left Iran and went north to Europe about 40,000 BC. The Marcum line did migrate to Iran, but they went east to Bangladesh about 43,000 BC. Then they went across India to Myanmar, then China, then Russia. After going north in Russia and living in Siberia, they started heading west.
The Marcum line is haplogroup “R.” Haplogroup “R” was formed in south-central Russia about 30,000 BC. The very common haplogroup R-M269 (M269 being the specific Y DNA mutation) was formed about 13,000 BC in southwest Russia, where the Marcums were at that time.
After living in Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan they made their way to Europe. The Marcum line lived in the area of Russia for about 37,000 years. They were in Ukraine by 4450 BC.
Here is a summary of the path the Marcum line took from the beginning of mankind.
| Today’s Country | Timeframe |
| Cameroon | 232,000 BC |
| Nigeria | 152,000 BC |
| Sudan | 126,000 BC |
| Ethiopia | 86,000 BC |
| Oman | 63,000 BC |
| Iran | 47,000 BC |
| Bangladesh | 43,000 BC |
| Myanmar (Burma) | 43,000 BC |
| China | 43,000 BC |
| Russia | 42,000 BC |
| Mongolia | 34,000 BC |
| Russia | 30,000 BC |
| Kazakhstan | 26,000 BC |
| Uzbekistan | 20,000 BC |
| Kazakhstan | 17,000 BC |
| Russia | 15,000 BC |
| Ukraine | 4450 BC |
| Czech Republic | 4100 BC |
| Germany | 3400 BC |
| Austria | 3050 BC |
| Belgium | 2900 BC |
| France | 2750 BC |
| Kent, England | 2650 BC |
| Cumbria, England | 2650 BC |
| Lancashire, England | 2550 BC |
| Cheshire, England | 2300 BC |
| Worcestershire, England | 2150 BC |
| Staffordshire, England | 1900 BC |
| Lancashire, England | 1750 BC |
| Ireland | 1300 BC |
| Cheshire, England | 1600 AD |
After living in the Czech Republic, Germany, Austria, and Belgium the Marcum line was in France by 2750 BC. Then they went to England. They were in Kent County by 2650 BC.
As mentioned earlier, around 2500 BC many Bell Beakers started migrating to Britain. Within a few centuries of this migration 90% of the gene pool in Britain had been replaced.[31] The Bell Beaker’s Y DNA was primarily R1b-M269, which is the predominate haplogroup in England, and overall Europe, today. The Marcum line was part of this migration event.
After being in Kent, the Marcums moved around in England, going to Cumbria, Lancashire, Cheshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire and then back to Lancashire. These counties are in western and north-western England. This was over about 900 years, until at least by 1750 BC. By 1300 BC they were in Ireland. They lived in Ireland about 2900 years, in the west-central and central area.
I mentioned earlier that Y DNA shows that there was a Non-Parental Event (NPE) in the 1300-1500 AD timeframe. A Phelan man fathered a Marcum child out of wedlock. This looks to have occurred in Ireland, possibly in Kilkenny County. It could have been a situation where a Marcum woman had a child out of wedlock that was fathered by a Phelan man, and she named the child Marcum (probably Markham or some other spelling, I’m still referring to the Marcum line). The sequence of the SNP changes in the Y DNA clearly show a Phelan to Marcum event.
There are various spellings of Phelan, others are Whelan, Whalan and Fallin. An early spelling was O’Faolain. The name’s meaning is “wolf.” It’s a very ancient Irish name. In the Family Tree DNA project for Whalen/Phelan the grouping is referred to as Ua Faelain of Deisi. A Google search finds this:
The Ua Faeláin (Ó Faoláin) dynasty were the 10th-13th century rulers of the Déisi Muman, a kingdom in modern County Waterford and south County Tipperary, Ireland. Descended from Fáelán (d. 966), they served as kings of this region, often navigating shifting alliances against or with Munster overkings, with notable leaders like Máel-Sechlainn Ua Faeláin (c. 1173).
The name derives from faolán (small wolf), ruling the Déisi Muman in Waterford. They claimed descent from Fiacha Suidhe, brother of Conn of the Hundred Battles. By the early 13th century, their power was largely absorbed by the Anglo-Norman colony, though the family name persisted as Whelan or Phelan.
By 1600 AD the Marcum line had left Ireland and they were back in England, in Cheshire County.
I initially thought it was possible that the Marcum line might have lived in Markham, England and thus took their surname from there. This would raise the question of whether the Marcum line was in Markham, England by around the 1300s AD and would mean their surname of origin came from the same villages as it did for the Markham line. Given a date of the 1300s AD for when they could have left Ireland, and with a margin of error as well, they might have been back in central England around that timeframe. Geographically, Cheshire is about 70 miles from the village of West Markham. While this is quite a distance, there is a margin of error in the location of a DNA event. By being in central England, they could have been in the Markham villages and therefore took the name from there. Unfortunately, I don’t think this was the case. I think the Marcum line’s surname came from Ireland and they had already established their family name when they went to Cheshire, England, which was probably closer to 1600 AD.
The Phelan story means that my Marcum line is descended from Phelans in Ireland. This is what the DNA shows. The Marcum line has a very deep Irish ancestry. In my future research I intend to explore this more.
My immigrant ancestor for the Marcum line is Thomas Markham. He appeared in Henrico, Virginia by 1635. I do not know where he came from or his origins. There was also a John Markham that appeared in Northampton, Virginia by 1655. His line is an exact Y DNA match to the line from Thomas. Thomas and John were certainly related, but I have not found any genealogical evidence that explains this. They are both descended from the Phelan line, from the NPE that occurred most likely a few generations before they were born.
As another interesting note, John of Northampton had a son also named John. John Jr. fathered a son out of wedlock, another NPE. That child would be named Thomas Kelly. There are several men today with the surname Kelly that match the Y DNA of John and Thomas Markham.
In my future research I intend to explore the Phelan line more.
Markham/Marcum Ancestral Lines
I mentioned earlier that there were several different Markham/Marcum ancestral lines for haplogroup “R.” Here are the lines I found in the Markham/Marcum project at Family Tree DNA. This short list is by terminal SNP and the paternal ancestor is in parenthesis.
- R-FT163313 (Thomas Markham, b. 1606, lived in Henrico County, Virginia beginning about 1635) – This line was in Ireland from 1300 BC to 1400 AD, then Cheshire, England by 1600 AD. This is my Marcum line that descends from the Phelan line.
- R-BY3226 (Robert Markham b. abt. 1690) – Last SNP dated 300 AD but no location identified, the SNP before that occurred in 1750 BC in Central England. Nottinghamshire cannot be confirmed or denied.
- R-FTG29507 (Thomas Markham, b. 1732 and d. 1792) – This SNP is dated 850 AD and occurred in West Central England. This one could be in the Nottinghamshire area by 1086 AD.
- R-BY72346 (Anthony Markham, d. 1710) – Last SNP dated 200 BC but no location identified, the earlier SNP occurred in 1000 BC in Germany. Nottinghamshire cannot be confirmed or denied. Note: this line is identified by members as going back to Alexander in Markham, England in the 1100’s.
- R-BY53611 (John Bunyon Markham, b. 1819) – Last SNP dated 300 AD, no location identified. The SNP before that was dated 200 AD and was in Northern Wales. Nottinghamshire cannot be confirmed or denied.
- I-FT3817 (sometimes shown as I-A18000) – (Deacon Daniel Markham, 1641-1712) – This is my Markham line that was identified as being in Nottinghamshire by the 600 AD timeframe.
The 5 “R” lines are offshoots of the SNP R-M269. This SNP occurred about 13,000 BC in the area of southwest Russia. M269 is the most common haplogroup in Europe and is carried by 110 million men.[32] It is also the main DNA marker to indicate the Bell Beaker culture. This is the group that spread westward across Europe and then into England and Ireland around 2500 BC. This is when “R” became the predominate haplogroup in England.
It’s possible that lines 1 and 3 could have been in Nottinghamshire in 1100 AD. For lines 2, 4, and 5 there isn’t enough information to make a determination. Line 6 is the only one with positive evidence of being there.
These 6 Big Y DNA tests represent 6 different men named Markham/Marcum, each with a different Y path. They would not have been closely related in the 1086 AD timeframe. The last SNP all 5 “Rs” had in common was R-L151 which occurred in 3400 BC in Germany. This means the man who was the common ancestor of the 5 lines would have lived about 2300 years before 1086 AD. The man who was the common ancestor for “I” and “R” lived in Iran about 45,000 BC.
So, this means there is not a single “first” Markham man as was portrayed before Y DNA testing became available. And it’s quite possible that one or more of these lines did not originate in Markham, England.
ANCIENT DNA MATCHES
An aspect of genetic genealogy that I find particularly fascinating is ancient DNA (referred to as aDNA). This has provided the means to define haplogroups by providing DNA evidence for specifics locations and timeframe. Ancient DNA has enabled the study of haplogroups to be conducted from a time-stamped observation of human genetic history, rather than inferences based on modern DNA distribution.
David Reich is Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School. His lab has analyzed many samples of Ancient DNA and makes available a file of Ancient DNA results.[33] The stated purpose of this file is: “The Allen Ancient DNA Resource (AADR) seeks to provide a publicly available, uniformly curated dataset that is maximally useful for scientists carrying out analyses of population history and natural selection.”
The file contains Ancient DNA results for 17,629 samples at the time of this writing. There are 142 that are matches to me. Of these 55 could potentially be ancient grandparents (this really is unlikely, more likely they would be cousins, but they would be related to a distant grandfather).
A list of the closest Ancient DNA matches is included in the Appendix.
An interesting observation, 26 of my closer matches are from the Orkney islands. The oldest is from about 5600 years ago. The youngest is about 3400 years old. Several of these matches were found at megalithic sites. One of these is a site called Point of Cott which was built about 5600 years ago. This is on the island of Westray, which is the northwest most island of the Orkney archipelago (group of islands). Point of Cott is a stalled, chambered tomb that is about 200 foot long with walls that are 10 foot tall.[34] It is a communal burial monument. The water level was lower when Point of Cott was built, the structure has partially fallen into the sea. About one third of the structure is under water today. Fourteen human skeletons have been found along with some other bones from incomplete skeletons. One of these is a pretty close Y DNA match and is dated to 5600 years ago.
How did my ancient ancestors show up in Orkney? The Markham line was in the Netherlands 5600 years ago. But they had been in Doggerland and England earlier, beginning around 10,600 years ago. I think a branch of the Markham line decided to go further north and ended up in Orkney by 5600 years ago. They probably helped to build Point of Cott and then were buried in it. I find it amazing to think about how long ago this was. It was well before the Great Pyramids and Stonehenge were built. Quite remarkable.
In 2019 I found a paper that described the history of my Y DNA type. It was written by Jack Danel and the paper is titled “The long history of DNA Haplogroup L-161.1”. L-161 refers to an SNP that defines what are called the Isles groups. The Isles groups are men within haplogroup “I” that were in today’s Great Britian thousands of years ago. This paper describes my paternal line’s history going back to the beginning of mankind. Ancient DNA has provided much of the information that makes this kind of information possible. I found it to be fascinating. There has been more discovery since 2019 so some of the information might be a little dated, but it is an excellent paper. I have it posted on our Markham-and-marcum-genealogy.com website and it can be found here: https://markham-and-marcum-genealogy.com/wp-content/uploads/Y-DNA-story-for-the-Markham-paternal-line-of-Isles-B1.docx.
Conclusion
The origin of the Markham name isn’t as clear as I used to think it was. I used to think all Markhams came from Markham, England and descended from a man who lived there in 1086 named Claron. Using Y DNA I cannot prove this to be true.
With my haplogroup being “I” and knowing that there are many Markham men in haplogroup “R,” the DNA does prove that all Markhams do not descend from Claron. I do believe that Claron is an “R” as there are Markham men who descend from him.
I also know that my “I” Markham line was in the Nottinghamshire area before the Norman Conquest of 1066. The SNP analysis shows this. It’s possible they were early inhabitants of Markham. But I do not know who my ancestor is that lived in Markham, England in that timeframe. I do believe it had to be another man living there at that time who took the Markham name as a surname of origin.
Several of the “R” lines cannot be traced to Nottinghamshire. I was not able to prove that all Markham lines come from Markham, England. Some are in another area of central England. They may not be terribly far away, but they are not close enough to be in Markham. Other lines don’t have enough SNP information to locate them in the right timeframe. Perhaps more information will become available as more men take Y DNA tests.
The early spelling of Markham may have been Marcham. But early on it became Markham. There are multiple variants that occur over time. Most relevant to me, my Marcum line that goes back to Thomas Marcum circa 1635 in Henrico, Virginia was a Markham. But in a few generations, as my line moved to Tennessee and Kentucky they changed the spelling to Marcum. This is explained more in the Marcum biography I mentioned earlier.
All men trace back to a man referred to as Y-Adam who lived in Africa 230,000 years ago. He is the “youngest” man to be the most recent common ancestor of all men today. The Markham line eventually migrated to the Middle East, then to Europe by 41,000 years ago. They were some of the first humans in Europe, and it is believed that “I” is the first haplogroup formed there. They were hunter-gatherers. During Ice Ages they would go south, then migrate north in warmer weather. Over the many thousands of years they were part of many different cultures and clans. They were in Doggerland by about 10,600 years ago. The 8.2 kiloyear events caused Doggerland to eventually flood and forced the Markham line out. They went east, back to mainland Europe. The haplogroup “I” size dwindled down to perhaps only 9 men who have living descendants today. We almost went extinct. Actually, many “I” lines from early on did go extinct for various reasons. Haplogroup “I” went from being a predominate group in Europe very early on to being a relatively small group today. Haplogroup “R” grew substantially during the Neolithic and Bronze age, especially during the Bell Beaker period, and is the predominate group in Europe today.
The Markham line was back in England by 2100 years ago. This was before the Roman times in England. After living through the Roman era, they lived through the Anglo-Saxon era. They were in the kingdom of Mercia, and literally in the area that would become Nottinghamshire. They remained there when the county of England was formed in the early 900’s under King Athelstan. I believe they were still there during the Normand Conquest and the creation of the Doomsday Book.
The Marcum line took a different path. As with all men, they began in Africa. Then they also migrated to the Middle East. But they continued going east, through southern Asia then up to Siberian Russia. They did not show up in Europe until about 6400 years ago, much later than the Markham line.
They were Bell Beakers and by 4600 years ago they migrated to England. After about 900 years in England they went to Ireland, staying there 2900 years. Then they went back to England around 1600 AD. The Marcum line is descended from the Phelan line in Ireland, possibly in Kilkenny County.
When I think about everything the Markham and Marcum lines experienced throughout history, I am truly amazed. Just a few examples are being hunter-gatherers, the transition to farming and domesticated animals, ice ages and climate change, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, plagues and sickness, all types of wild animals, the stone age, bronze age and iron age, the various archaeological cultures, building megalithic structures, changes in tools and weapons, Christianization, the invention of the wheel and writing, numerous tribes and kingdoms, the Roman Empire, the Norman Conquest and I’m sure there are many more. It shows how resilient humans are.
Each and every one of us has a story. All women are descended from Mitochondria Eve who lived in Africa perhaps 150,000 years ago. All men are descended from Y-Adam who lived about 230,000 years ago also in Africa. I’m glad I have been able to research and gain an understanding of my unique story.
Written by Kem & Becky Marcum; January, 2026. This document can be accessed at https://markham-and-marcum-genealogy.com/ under Bios & Stories as a web page or under Documents/Biographies as a Word document.
APPENDIX
Here is a list of the SNPs that have mutated in my Y DNA for haplogroup “I.” The most recent change is listed first. This table has the SNP name, the date it occurred, the location where it first occurred, and the number of tested men that have this mutation. This is from the Family Tree DNA Discover Haplogroup reports.
| SNP Name | Date SNP formed | Location where formed | # of men with |
| FT3817 | 1550 AD | not on Globetrekker map | 2 |
| FT4590 | 750 AD | not on Globetrekker map | 2 |
| A18000 | 650 AD | England (south Mercia) | 18 |
| A17998 | 600 AD | England (north Mercia) | 23 |
| Y14603 | 100 BC | England (north Mercia) | 29 |
| Y14606 (A1514) | 1100 BC | Netherlands (west coast) | 36 |
| Y14610 | 1850 BC | Germany (NW) | 38 |
| Y14607 | 3000 BC | Netherlands | 57 |
| FT45562 | 3050 BC | Netherlands | 61 |
| Y14605 | 3300 BC | Netherlands | 106 |
| Y14611 | 4100 BC | Netherlands | 110 |
| S2742 | 4500 BC | Denmark | 122 |
| FT4093 | 4600 BC | Denmark | 122 |
| AMM061 | 4750 BC | Germany (north) | 882 |
| S2703 | 5050 BC | Germany (north) | 1,084 |
| FGC7087 | 5100 BC | England (east) (Doggerland) | 1,093 |
| FGC7094 | 5100 BC | England (east) | 1,168 |
| L1498 | 5350 BC | Netherlands (north) | 1,433 |
| S2639 | 5450 BC | France (west) | 1,806 |
| FGC7113 | 8650 BC | France (west) (Doggerland) | 1,850 |
| L161 | 10000 BC | Spain | 2,041 |
| FGC8129 | 10000 BC | France | 2,041 |
| CTS5375 | 12000 BC | France | 10,105 |
| CTS11030 | 12000 BC | France | 10,105 |
| S2770 | 15000 BC | France | 10,269 |
| M423 | 18000 BC | France | 10,426 |
| P37 | 21000 BC | Italy (NW) (Monaco) | 16,643 |
| L460 | 21000 BC | Germany (south) | 16,643 |
| CTS2257 | 23000 BC | Germany (south) | 43,210 |
| P215 (I2) | 26000 BC | Austria | 43,775 |
| M170 | 33000 BC | Austria | 121,183 |
| L758 (I) | 40000 BC | Austria | 121,183 |
| IJ-P124 (IJ) | 45000 BC | Iraq | 195,276 |
| IJK-L15 (IJK) | 46000 BC | Iran | 601,330 |
| HIJK-PF3494 (HIJK) | 46000 BC | Iran | 603,806 |
| GHIJK-F1329 (GHIJK) | 47000 BC | Iran | 628,606 |
| F-M89 (F) | 63000 BC | Oman | 628,967 |
| CF-P143 | 64000 BC | Ethiopia | 633,311 |
| CT-M168 (CT) | 86000 BC | Ethiopia | 694,452 |
| BT-M42 (BT) | 122000 BC | South Sudan | 695,899 |
| A-V221 (A1b) | 126000 BC | Sudan | 696,688 |
| A-V168 (A1) | 152000 BC | Nigeria | 696,972 |
| A-L1090 (A0-T) | 232000 BC | Nigeria | 697,064 |
| A-PR2921 | Y-Adam | Cameroon | 697,076 |
Here is a list of the SNPs that have mutated in the Y DNA for haplogroup “R” of Thomas Markham. Thomas is the ancestor of my Marcum line. He was in Virginia Colony by 1635 and settled in Henrico County. This line was in Ireland in the 1000 AD timeframe, so the grandfather in this line was not around Markham, England at that time. But they were back in central England by around 1600 AD.
| SNP Name | Date SNP formed | Location where formed | # of men with |
| FT163313 | 1600 AD | Cheshire, Central England | 4 |
| A14684 | 1400 AD | Central Ireland | 6 |
| BY11843 | 1150 AD | Central Ireland | 13 |
| BY11097 | 900 AD | Central Ireland | 15 |
| BY155264 | 850 AD | Central Ireland | 21 |
| S22219 | 650 AD | Central Ireland | 25 |
| FGC35783 | 550 AD | Central Ireland | 31 |
| BY601 | 450 AD | Central Ireland | 91 |
| BY595 | 1300 BC | Central Ireland | 103 |
| BY596 | 1750 BC | Lancashire, Western England | 105 |
| BY609 | 1900 BC | Staffordshire, Central England | 107 |
| Z17967 | 2150 BC | Worcestershire, Central England | 127 |
| Z17969 | 2300 BC | Cheshire, Central England | 152 |
| FGC45945 | 2350 BC | Lancashire, Western England | 153 |
| Z17966 | 2350 BC | Lancashire, Western England | 295 |
| CTS1751 | 2450 BC | Lancashire, Western England | 639 |
| Z39589 | 2550 BC | Lancashire, Western England | 35,581 |
| DF13 | 2650 BC | Cumbria, Northwest England | 77,356 |
| S552 | 2650 BC | Kent, Southeast England | 78,627 |
| L21 | 2750 BC | Northwest France | 91,043 |
| Z290 | 2900 BC | West Belgium | 91,086 |
| P312 | 3050 BC | West Austria | 167,046 |
| L151 | 3400 BC | Germany | 267,780 |
| P310 | 4100 BC | Czech Republic | 268,132 |
| L51 | 4350 BC | Ukraine | 270,555 |
| L23 | 4450 BC | Ukraine | 279,027 |
| M269 | 13000 BC | Southwest Russia | 287,336 |
| P296 | 15000 BC | Southwest Russia | 287,716 |
| L389 | 15000 BC | Southwest Russia | 288,002 |
| L761 | 17000 BC | Kazakhstan | 288,959 |
| L754 | 17000 BC | Kazakhstan | 288,962 |
| M343 (R1b) | 20000 BC | Uzbekistan | 291,172 |
| M173 | 26000 BC | Kazakhstan | 349,398 |
| M207 (R) | 30000 BC | Russia | 351,823 |
| P-P226 | 34000 BC | Mongolia | 363,024 |
| P-P284 | 34000 BC | Russia | 363,025 |
| P-M45 | 42000 BC | Russia | 363,027 |
| P-P295 | 43000 BC | China | 363,087 |
| P-PF5850 | 43000 BC | Myanmar (Burma) | 363,093 |
| K-YSC0000186 (K2b) | 43000 BC | Bangladesh | 363,382 |
| K-M526 (K2) | 43000 BC | Bangladesh | 395,299 |
| K-M9 (K) | 45000 BC | Iran | 406,490 |
| IJK-L15 (IJK) | 46000 BC | Iran | 601,330 |
| HIJK-PF3494 (HIJK) | 46000 BC | Iran | 603,806 |
| GHIJK-F1329 (GHIJK) | 47000 BC | Iran | 628,606 |
| F-M89 (F) | 63000 BC | Oman | 628,967 |
| CF-P143 | 64000 BC | Ethiopia | 633,311 |
| CT-M168 (CT) | 86000 BC | Ethiopia | 694,452 |
| BT-M42 (BT) | 122000 BC | South Sudan | 695,899 |
| A-V221 (A1b) | 126000 BC | Sudan | 696,688 |
| A-V168 (A1) | 152000 BC | Nigeria | 696,972 |
| A-L1090 (A0-T) | 232000 BC | Nigeria | 697,064 |
| A-PR2921 | Y-Adam | Cameroon | 697,076 |
Here is a list of the SNPs that have mutated in the Y DNA for haplogroup “R” of a Marcum man who is descended from the Markhams of Markham, England – Claron and Alexander. As there are no SNPs in this line since 200 BC it is not possible to get a location during the 1000 AD timeframe.
| SNP Name | Date SNP formed | Location where formed | # of men with |
| BY61463 or FTB75443 | 200 BC | Not on Globetrekker map | 2 |
| BY72346 | 1000 BC | Germany | 5 |
| BY84635 | 1150 BC | France | 7 |
| FTB42589 | 1200 BC | France, Normady | 14 |
| CTS606 | 1500 BC | France, Normady | 709 |
| Z205 | 1550 BC | England, South East | 3,527 |
| Z202 | 1850 BC | France, West Coast | 4,401 |
| Z200 | 1900 BC | France, West Coast | 4,683 |
| SRY2627 | 2350 BC | South England | 5,417 |
| Z267 | 2500 BC | South England | 5,515 |
| ZS312 | 2500 BC | South England | 5,784 |
| Z46513 | 2550 BC | South England | 6,915 |
| Z198 | 2650 BC | France | 9,688 |
| Z195 | 2650 BC | South France | 21,978 |
| DF27 | 2750 BC | South France | 36,749 |
| ZZ11 | 2800 BC | Eastern France | 67,273 |
| Z46516 | 2900 BC | Germany | 68,485 |
| P312 | 3050 BC | West Austria | 167,046 |
| L151 | 3400 BC | Germany | 267,780 |
| P310 | 4100 BC | Czech Republic | 268,132 |
| L51 | 4350 BC | Ukraine | 270,555 |
| L23 | 4450 BC | Ukraine | 279,027 |
| M269 | 13000 BC | Southwest Russia | 287,336 |
| P296 | 15000 BC | Southwest Russia | 287,716 |
| L389 | 15000 BC | Southwest Russia | 288,002 |
| L761 | 17000 BC | Kazakhstan | 288,959 |
| L754 | 17000 BC | Kazakhstan | 288,962 |
| M343 (R1b) | 20000 BC | Uzbekistan | 291,172 |
| M173 | 26000 BC | Kazakhstan | 349,398 |
| M207 (R) | 30000 BC | Russia | 351,823 |
| P-P226 | 34000 BC | Mongolia | 363,024 |
| P-P284 | 34000 BC | Russia | 363,025 |
| P-M45 | 42000 BC | Russia | 363,027 |
| P-P295 | 43000 BC | China | 363,087 |
| P-PF5850 | 43000 BC | Myanmar (Burma) | 363,093 |
| K-YSC0000186 (K2b) | 43000 BC | Bangladesh | 363,382 |
| K-M526 (K2) | 43000 BC | Bangladesh | 395,299 |
| K-M9 (K) | 45000 BC | Iran | 406,490 |
| IJK-L15 (IJK) | 46000 BC | Iran | 601,330 |
| HIJK-PF3494 (HIJK) | 46000 BC | Iran | 603,806 |
| GHIJK-F1329 (GHIJK) | 47000 BC | Iran | 628,606 |
| F-M89 (F) | 63000 BC | Oman | 628,967 |
| CF-P143 | 64000 BC | Ethiopia | 633,311 |
| CT-M168 (CT) | 86000 BC | Ethiopia | 694,452 |
| BT-M42 (BT) | 122000 BC | South Sudan | 695,899 |
| A-V221 (A1b) | 126000 BC | Sudan | 696,688 |
| A-V168 (A1) | 152000 BC | Nigeria | 696,972 |
| A-L1090 (A0-T) | 232000 BC | Nigeria | 697,064 |
| A-PR2921 | Y-Adam | Cameroon | 697,076 |
Ancient DNA Matches
These are listed with an ID (that is assigned by the labs that do the DNA analysis), location, and date the person lived. The links are for more information.
- DOG002 – Netherlands, Doggerland, abt. 8400 BC.
- https://kar.kent.ac.uk/100297/1/41586_2023_5726_MOESM1_ESM.pdf
- See pages 9 and 11 in this PDF
- https://kar.kent.ac.uk/100297/1/41586_2023_5726_MOESM1_ESM.pdf
- DOB001 – Germany, Urdhohle, Dobritz abt. 7500 BC.
- NEO91 – Denmark, Maglemose, Zealand, abt. 7100 BC.
- I0001 – Luxembourg, Mesolithic, Loschbour, abt. 6000 BC.
- GFW002 – Germany, Mesolithic, Gross Fredenwalde, abt. 6000 BC.
- DRI001 – Germany, Mesolithic, Drigge, abt. 5000 BC.
- ROS78 – France (NE), Mittelfeld-Rosenmeer, abt. 4500 BC. (L1498)
- Steigen – Norway, Mesolithic, Steigen, abt. 3900 BC.
- BRM001 – Germany, Oberkassel, Wayhe-Dreye, abt. 3800 BC.
- NEO790 – Denmark, Tysmose, Zealand, abt. 3800 BC. (L1498)
- NEO595 – Denmark, Pandebjerg, Zealand, abt. 3700 BC.
- I2796 – Scotland, Mesolithic, Point of Cott, Westray, Orkney, abt. 3600 BC.
- I2634 – Scotland, Tulach an t’Sionnach, abt. 3600 BC.
- I6759 – England, Kelco Cave, abt. 3600 BC. (L1498)
- I2635 – Scotland, Tulloch of Assery (North), abt. 3600 BC. (L1498)
- NEO28 – Denmark, Salpetermosen, Zealand region, abt. 3600 BC. (L1498, S2742)
- I12317 – Scotland, Carding Mill Bay, abt. 3500 BC. (L1498)
- I3133 – Scotland, Covesea Caves, abt. 3500 BC.
- Mid002 – Scotland, Midhowe, Orkney, abt. 3500 BC.
- I2637 – Scotland – Holm of Papa Westray, Orkney, abt. 3400 BC.
- NEO626 – Scotland – Banks tomb, South Ronaldsay, Orkney, abt. 3400 BC.
- NEO627 – Scotland – Banks Tomb, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC. (L1498)
- NEO625 – Scotland – Banks Tomb, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC. (L1498)
- NEO717 – Scotland – Banks Tomb, Orkney, abt. 3000 BC.
- NEO630 – Scotland – Banks Tomb, Orkney, abt. 3000 BC. (L1498)
- I7554 – Scotland – Unstan Chamber Tomb, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC. (L1498)
- I0519 – England – Banbury Lane, Northampton, abt. 3300 BC.
- KH150422 – Germany – Waltberg, Niedertiefenbach, Rheinland, abt. 3300 BC.
- Lai001 – Scotland – Knowe of Lairo, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC.
- Mid001 – Scotland – Midhowe, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC.
- KH150289 – Germany – Waltberg, Niedertiefenbach, Rheinland, abt. 3300 BC.
- I0172 – Germany – Esperstedt, Sachsen Anhalt, abt. 3300 BC. (L1498, S2703)
- I2978 – Scotland – Isbister, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC. (L1498)
- I2935 – Scotland – Isbister, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC. (L1498)
- I2979 – Scotland – Isbister, Orkney, abt. 3300 BC.
- I2629 – Scotland – Isbister, Orkney, abt. 2900 BC.
- I2630 – Scotland – Isbister, Orkney, abt. 2500 BC.
- I2932 – Scotland – Isbister, Orkney, abt. 2400 BC.
- Ros005 – Sweden – Nordic, Funnel Beaker, Rossberga, abt. 3000 BC. (L1498, S2742)
- I19286 – Scotland – Embo, Sutherland, abt. 3300 BC.
- I2631 – Scotland – Quoyness, Orkney, abt. 3200 BC.
- KD006 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1500 BC. (L1498)
- KD059 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1500 BC. (L1498)
- KD045 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1400 BC.
- KD057 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1400 BC.
- KD060 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1400 BC. (L1498)
- KD049 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1400 BC. (L1498)
- KD064 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1400 BC. (L1498)
- KD047 – Scotland – Links of Noltland, Orkney, abt. 1400 BC.
- I20665 – England – Saxon, West Heslerton, North Yorkshire, Vale of Pickering, abt. 500 AD.
- I14091 – England – Anglian, Hallow Banks, Scorton, abt, 500 AD.
- I11581 – England – Worth Matravers, Dorset, abt. 600 AD.
- R63 – Italy – Rome Medieval, Villa Magna, 1000 AD. (L1498, Y14605)
Bibliography
A History of the Markham Family, by Reverend David Frederick Markham, John Bowyer Nichols and Sons, London, 1854.
David Frederick Markham – Travel notes and thirty drawings of Malta and Gozo, including archeological sites, Malta Maritime Museum, housed at the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library, accessed at https://www.vhmml.org/museum/view/3953.
Markham: The Church and Parish, by Clements R. Markham, C.B., T. Richards, 37 Great Queen Street, W.C., 1882.
Markham Memorials, by Sir Clements Markham, K.C.B., Spottiswoode & Co. Ltd., New Street Square, London, 1913.
The Way it Was with Our Ancestors, by William H. and Fonda Marcum, written in 1982, self-published.
A Brief History of The Anglo-Saxons, by Geoffrey Hindley, Published by Constable and Robinson Ltd., Great Britain, 2006.
Mercia, The Rise and Fall of a Kingdom, by Annie Whitehead, Published by Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire, England, 2020.
Saxons, Vikings, and Celts, by Bryan Sykes, Published by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, NY, 2006.
The Mystery of Doggerland, by Graham Phillips, Published by Bear & Company, Rochester, Vermont, 2023.
Doggerland, Lost World under the North Sea, Edited by Luc Amkreutz & Sasja van der Vaart-Verschoof, Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden, Netherlands, 2022.
Pagan Britain, by Ronald Hutton, Published by Yale University Press, 2014.
A Short History of England, The Glorious Story of a Rowdy Nation, by Simon Jenkins, Published by PublicAffairs, 2011.
Scotland’s Hidden Sacred Past, by Freddy Silva, Published by Invisible Temple, 2021.
The Scots, A Genetic Journey, by Alistair Moffat, Published by Birlinn Limited, Edinburgh, Scotland, 2017.
Britain, A Genetic Journey, by Alistair Moffatt, Published by Birlinn Limited, Edinburgh, Scotland, 2017.
The Journey of Man, A Genetic Odyssey, by Spencer Wells, Princeton University Press, 2002.
Before Scotland, The Story of Scotland Before History, By Alistair Moffat, Published by Thames & Hudson Inc., 2005.
Who We Are and How We Got Here, Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past, by David Reich, Published by Vintage Books, 2019.
Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Translated by Leo Sherley-Price, revised by R. E. Latham, Published by Penguin Books, 1990.
English Society in the Early Middle Ages, by Doris Mary Stenton, Published by Penguin Books, 1951.
The Year 1000, What Life was Like at the Turn of the First Millennium, By Robert Lacey & Danny Danziger, Published by Abacus, 2003.
1066, The Year of the Conquest, by David Howarth, Published by Penguin Books, 1978.
Life in a Medieval Village, by Frances and Joseph Gies, Published by Harper & Row, 1990.
Footnotes
[1] Information on the origin of the Markham name comes from House of Names (houseofnames.com) and Forebears (forebears.io).
[2] A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume II, by John Burke, Esq., Published in London for Henry Colburn, by R. Bentley, 1836, Page 203.
[3] An online version of the Doomsday Book that is translated and searchable can be found at https://opendomesday.org/.
[4] “A History of the Markham Family,” by Reverend David Frederick Markham, John Bowyer Nichols and Sons, London, 1854.
[5] “Markham: The Church and Parish,” by Clements R. Markham, C.B., T. Richards, 37 Great Queen Street, W.C., 1882.
[6] Clements Markham, Wikipedia, last edited 7 June 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clements_Markham.
[7] “Markham Memorials,” by Sir Clements Markham, K.C.B., Spottiswoode & Co. Ltd., New Street Square, London, 1913.
[8] “East Markham Church”, by Reverend A. E. Briggs, Articles from the Transactions of the Thoroton Society, 1907; accessed at http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/articles/tts/tts1907/summer/eastmarkham1.htm.
[9] Ibid, online version of the Doomsday Book, this reference located at https://opendomesday.org/name/claron-father-of-arnold/.
[10] “The Cartulary of Blyth Priory,” Edited by R. T. Timson, Prepared by the Thoroton Society of Nottinghamshire, Published by Her Majesty’s Stationery Office for the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, 1973, Page xxvi.
[11] Estimated SNP dates come from Discover Haplogroup Reports, SNP formation geographic locations shown on a map come from Discover Globetrekker, these tools are provided by Family Tree DNA, accessed in November 2025, accessed at familytreedna.com.
[12] Mercia, Wikipedia, last edited 11 October 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercia.
[13] Asser, Wikipedia, last edited 13 October 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asser.
[14] Alfred the Great, Wikipedia, last edited 12 November 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great.
[15] Ibid, Markham Memorials, page 4.
[16] Five Boroughs of the Danelaw, last edited 14 September 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Boroughs_of_the_Danelaw.
[17] The Markham/Marcum project at Family Tree DNA can be found at https://www.familytreedna.com/groups/markham-marcumetal/activity-feed. It is not necessary to be a member to view the project entries.
[18] “Race, Ancestry, and Genetic Composition of the U.S.”, by Richard Morrill, 9/22/2015, Newgeography.com, accessed at https://www.newgeography.com/content/005051-race-ancestry-and-genetic-composition-us.
[19] “Distribution of European Y-chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups by country in percentage”, Eupedia.com, Genetics, accessed at https://www.eupedia.com/europe/european_y-dna_haplogroups.shtml.
[20] International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG); This organization provides education for genetic genealogy, accessed at isogg.org.
[21] The archaeological descriptive information in this section comes from Wikipedia.com which has good descriptions for the various cultures and eras.
[22] This information comes from a combination of the Discover Reports from Family Tree DNA mentioned above and from Wikipedia.
[23] Doggerland, Wikipedia, last edited 17 September 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doggerland.
[24] 8.2-kiloyear event, Wikipedia, last edited 29 September 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8.2-kiloyear_event#cite_note-38.
[25] Doggerland, by Jack Lasky, 2024, accessed at https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/geology/doggerland.
[26] “The impact of the abrupt 8.2 ka cold event on the Mesolithic population of western Scotland: a Bayesian chronological analysis using ‘activity events’ as a population proxy”, by Karen Wicks and Steven Mithen, Published in Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 45, May 2014, Page 240, accessed at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440314000442?via%3Dihub.
[27] “The founding and migration of I2a2b”, Eupedia.com forum on population genetics for Y-DNA haplogroups with focus on I2, accessed at: https://www.eupedia.com/forum/threads/the-founding-and-migration-of-i2a2b.26211/.
[28] Posth, Cosimo, Yu, He, Ghalichi, Ayshin, Rougier, Hélène, Crevecoeur, Isabelle, Huang, Yilei, Ringbauer, Harald, Rohrlach, Adam B., Nägele, Kathrin, Villalba-Mouco, Vanessa and others (2023) Palaeogenomics of Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic European hunter-gatherers. Nature, 615 (7950). pp. 9-11. Accessed at https://kar.kent.ac.uk/100297/1/41586_2023_5726_MOESM1_ESM.pdf.
[29] “Background to Beakers – Inquiries in Regional Cultural Backgrounds of the Bell Beaker Complex,” by Harry Fokkens & Franco Nicolis, Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden, Netherlands in 2012.
[30] “The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe,” Olalde, et al; Nature, Feb. 21, 2018, Pages 190-196.
[31] Ibid, “The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe.”
[32] Haplogroup R-M269, Wikipedia, last edited 15 November 2025, accessed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269.
[33] “The Allen Ancient DNA Resource (AADR): A curated compendium of ancient human genomes”, Mallick, Swapan; Reich, David, 2023, https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/FFIDCW, Harvard Dataverse, V9; v62.0_1240k_public.xlsx.
[34] The Excavation of a Stalled Cairn at the Point of Cott, Westray, Orkney, by John Barber, Published by the Scottish Trust for Archaeological Research, 1997; accessed at https://www.aocarchaeology.com/publications/star-monograph-series/point-of-cott.